Utilitarianism and Greatest Happiness Essay Example for Free

Utilitarianism and Greatest Happiness Essay Utilitarianism begins with the work of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), an English political and social reformer. Educated at Oxford, Bentham eventually headed up a small group of thinkers called the â€Å"Philosophical Radicals. † This group, which included James Mill (father of John Stuart Mill, more on him later), was dedicated to social reform and the promulgation of Bentham’s ideas. Bentham based utilitarian ethics on the so-called â€Å"greatest happiness principle,† an idea originally enunciated by Frances Hutcheson (16941746), one of the founders of the Scottish Enlightenment. Put simply, Bentham believed that the goal of ethics was to promote â€Å"the greatest happiness of the greatest number. † Interestingly enough, Bentham went on to say that happiness consists in experiencing more pleasures than pains. That is, Bentham connects the welfare of the greatest number to a hedonistic view that values pleasure over pain. He then constructed what he termed a â€Å"hedonistic calculus† as an objective measure of the value of various pleasures or pains in terms of such categories as â€Å"intensity, duration, certainty, proximity, productiveness, purity, and extent. † Using such quantitative measures, Bentham felt he could calculate the â€Å"happiness factor† of various proposed courses of action. The action promoting the greatest happiness for the greatest number in a particular situation would be morally best. Notice two things about Bentham’s approach. First, implicit in his argument is the belief that the only way to measure the moral worth of an action is to evaluate its consequences: Will it produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number or not? Whatever does produce the greatest happiness in a particular situation, Bentham claims, will be morally correct. Second, the contrast to Kant could not be more clear. For Kant, the moral worth of an action lies strictly in the motive for taking the action, never its consequences. Only a good will, properly apprehending its duty through use of the categorical imperative and then acting to fulfill that duty, is capable of performing a morally good action. Bentham himself was an ardent political reformer, arguing tenaciously for a number of, what were for the day, radical views, including equality for women, prison reform, decriminalization of homosexuality, and animal rights. The more philosophical development of his ethical ideas fell to his followers, particularly James Mill and, later, Mill’s son John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). The younger Mill, aggressively educated by his father from ages three to fourteen, grew to be one of the 2 great thinkers of the nineteenth century. In the process, John Stuart Mill considerably refined Bentham’s utilitarianism. Writing in his 1861 essay Utilitarianism, Mill modifies Bentham’s view of pleasure and pain. Bentham had sought to distinguish pleasures and pains quantitatively (e. g., more or less intense, more or less in duration, more or less in extent, etc. ). Mill, by contrast, sought to include qualitative features, arguing, for instance, that the experience an intellectual or aesthetic pleasure (like reading a good book) might be more pleasurable than the physical pleasure of something like a good meal. Mill otherwise seeks to defend Bentham’s basic ideas. In doing so, Mill tries to resolve a conflict in Bentham’s thought. This conflict arises because of a difference between Bentham’s account of (1) hedonism for the individual and (2) hedonism as an ethical theory. An individual acts, Bentham says, solely out of a desire for happiness (i. e. , more pleasures than pains). This account could be termed descriptive in that it claims to explain why a person acts. But according to hedonism as an ethical theory, however, the individual should seek â€Å"the greatest happiness of the greatest number. † This view is not descriptive, but normative because it tells what the individual should do. This conflict leads to two problems. The first is obvious: if each individual is motivated to act to attain personal happiness, then why would that person have any concern to promote the welfare of others? The second is more theoretical: How to get from a descriptive theory of how individuals act to a normative theory of why individuals should all seek â€Å"the greatest happiness of the greatest number. † To solve the first problem, Mill introduces the idea of external and internal sanctions. These sanctions serve for Mill as the bridge between the world of the individual and the larger social universal of which we are all a part. External sanctions, for example, are social rules and laws that reward or punish persons for particular actions. Individuals view these sanctions in terms of their potential for pleasure or pain and adjust their future behavior accordingly. Mill’s view of internal sanctions is different. There, he sounds a bit like Hume, arguing that obeying a moral law produces a feeling of pleasure (and disobeying such a law produces a feeling of pain). Such feelings can, in turn, be can be observed to develop (in some people, at least) into a deep sympathy for others, thus illustrating the operation of the â€Å"greatest happiness principle† from within such persons. For such persons, their own happiness may truly depend on the happiness of others, which seems 3 to show that the individual desire for happiness can be reconciled with the theoretical demand that individuals act for the welfare of all. Why such connection might occur in some individuals rather than in others remains a question. At this point, contrasting Mill with Hume is instructive. Mill argues that, as can be observed, individuals develop a sense of pleasure or pain associated with obeying or disobeying moral laws and that, at least for some, those pleasures and pains become the basis for a sympathetic connection with others. Hume argues that such sympathetic connection is natural. By growing up in a human society, we intuitively learn to associate a feeling of moral pleasure with some acts and moral pain with others. Thus, for Hume, sentiment (or the particular feelings associated with moral or immoral acts) is a normal part of human development; whereas, for Mill, internal sanctions—and the role of the â€Å"greatest happiness principle†can be observed in people’s behavior, but a general theory of why people do this is lacking. Another place where a general theory is lacking is in the second problem described above: How to get from a descriptive theory of how individuals act to a normative theory of why individuals should all seek â€Å"the greatest happiness of the greatest number. † Mill argues here that there is no way to prove such a first principle as the â€Å"greatest happiness principle. † Indeed, he says, â€Å"No reason can be given why the general happiness is desirable except that each person, so far as he believes it to be attainable, desires his own happiness. † Since Mill’s time, utilitarianism has been widely debated, and an interesting distinction has emerged between Bentham and Mills theories. For Bentham, what makes an action right depends upon whether it contributes to the greatest happiness of the greatest number. That is, Bentham focuses on the happiness-producing potential of each individual action. We can call this act-utilitarianism. Mill, to some extent, seems to subscribe to this view, but he also at points takes a position we might call rule-utilitarianism. From this viewpoint, the morality of an action does not depend on whether it actually produces the greatest happiness; rather, what counts is whether the rule that the action exemplifies in fact satisfies the need for the greatest happiness of the greatest number. These two forms of utilitarianism continue to be debated by ethicists today. To illustrate the distinction between these two forms of utilitarianism, consider the following case. Suppose that a person unknowingly carried a deadly, highly contagious disease. An act-utilitarian might argue that we would be justified in killing such an individual to protect society from the disease (and thereby promote the greatest 4 happiness of the greatest number). A rule-utilitarian, on the other hand, might point out that the rule or principle involved in such an act (that we might kill someone when we found it in the best interest of the greatest number) should be rejected because it was, in fact, a dangerous rule and could ultimately lead to diminishing the greatest happiness of all. (Incidentally, you may have noticed that the rule-utilitarians position is reminiscent of Kant. ) In conclusion, the utilitarian viewpoint championed by Bentham and refined by John Stuart Mill has come to be one of the two major schools of ethical thought among academic philosophers in the United States and elsewhere. Its major competition, of course, comes from Kant’s deontological ethics. It is worth mentioning as well that utilitarianism has also had a powerful impact outside ethical circles. Remember that Bentham himself was primarily a liberal political reformer, so it is fitting that politics and public policy are also areas in which reasoning about the â€Å"greatest good for the greatest number† continues to widely practiced.

The Origin of Life :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

How life arose is a question that is fundamental to both philosophy and science. Responses to it enable one, in turn, to answer such questions as, â€Å"Who am I?†, â€Å"Why am I here?†, and â€Å"How do I make sense of this world?† This secondary set of questions can be answered in a myriad of ways for a variety of reasons, but the answer to the first question has only two responses. As Douglas Futuyuma says, â€Å"Creation and evolution, between them, exhaust the possible explanations for the origin of living things† (197). Either we are the product of the chemical and physical laws of nature operating over time, or we have been formed, at least in part, by some supernatural Force or Deity. The acceptance of one of these options as a foundation will determine how one will establish a belief system to determine his place in the world. This is a matter of crucial importance, yet in most biology classes offered at U.C. Davis, we learn that life c ame from nonlife by strictly natural (as opposed to supernatural) processes. The possibility that perhaps the origin of life cannot be explained by a natural mechanism is ignored, and this is disturbing. For if we limit what explanations we are willing to accept for the origin of life, we could be closing our eyes to reality. Francis Crick, co-discoverer of DNA, has said that â€Å"the origin of life appears to be almost a miracle, so many are the conditions which would have to be satisfied to get it going† (Horgan 27).2 Noted evolutionary astronomer Frederick Hoyle has described the chances of life having evolved from nonlife to be about as likely as the chances that â€Å"a tornado sweeping through a junkyard might assemble a Boeing 747 from the materials therein† (Johnson 106). Why do respected scientists doubt what textbooks teach as fact? It would appear that these scientists know something that current theories describing the origin of life fail to explain. While current theories describe scenarios in which genetic material such as RNA becomes entrapped in a protective cell membrane as a likely recipe for the formation of life, they generally do not focus on the difficulties of forming and concentrating all of these components in the first place.3 To clarify, current theories suffer from what I call the â€Å"cookbook mentality.

Fulcher of Chartes:Pope Urban’s Speech at Clermont Essay

8.4 Fulcher of Chartres, â€Å"Pope Urban II’s Speech at Clermont† As the crusades began, Christians gathered to hear the insightful speech given by Pope Urban II in which he was able take unruly knights and give them a common enemy to fight. The enemies were the Muslims and Turks who were attacking the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Land. Urban II’s speech gave insights to the knightly class who were engaging in warlike tendencies and encouraged them to help people in need. On November 27, 1095, Pope Urban II began his influential speech to the church officials and nobles who were in attendance. In the beginning of his speech, Urban II said that he was given permission by God to come and speak to them about what was going on. The situations that were going on in the Christian society included the knightly class fighting each other, raping young women, robbing the churches, and other unseemly activities. Pope Urban II told them that in order to become â€Å"frien ds† with God, they would have to do things that were pleasing to God. These included leaving all matters that revolved around the church to the leaders of the church, and if they [the knights] were to rob the leaders of the church they will be cursed. At this point of his speech Pope Urban II is building up to the main reason for this call to order. Urban II informed his audience that the people of the Byzantine Empire were in need of their help, and it was their duty to help them. He explained to his listeners that the Turks and the Arabs have conquered the Byzantine Empire and taken over the Christian lands. Pope Urban II told the people that Christ commands them to help the Byzantine Empire regardless of their social class. â€Å"On this account I, or rather the Lord beseech you as Christ’s heralds† (358). Pope Urban II went on to say that whoever was to die in battle or die in any other kind of way, they would receive forgiveness for their sins. This is saying that no matter what they have done in the past, they would be forgiven for it all. Urban II continued to convince the people at his speech to help the Byzantine Empire defeat the Turks and Arabs and win back the Christian territory. This would lead to what is now called the First  Crusade. Crusade began in the fall of 1096 in Constantinople where crusaders gathered. The crusaders included the knights and people of Byzantine Empire. The Crusaders began to march through territories controlled by the Turks and Arabs which included Edessa and Antioch. They continued to head to Jerusalem in June 1099. The crusaders the n proceeded on a â€Å"five-week siege of Jerusalem† which fell in July of 1099. Crusaders then took over cities along the Mediterranean coast and built â€Å"fortified castle all over the Holy Land to protect their new territories† (Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History). The crusaders defeated the Egyptian relief army in August 1099. Pope Urban II died on July 29, 1099 and was not able to see the victory of reclaiming Jerusalem. Fulcher of Chartres clearly exemplified that he was bias towards Pope Urban II’s speech. Although he was there to hear the speech, he did not record the speech until years later. This proves that he truly believed in what Pope Urban II was protesting. Not only did Urban II’s speech help to reclaim the Christian lands, it also encouraged the knightly class and others listeners to reconnect with God’s laws and commandments. The First Crusades were not the ending of the battles, there was a second and third crusade. The crusaders failed in the second crusade, and had a dismal failure in the third crusade. These battles show that the Christian warriors had wanted to have what was rightfully Christ’s, and would not stop at any cost until they had it. Works Cited Chartres, Fulcher Of, trans. â€Å"Pope Urban II’s Speech at Clermont† p. 357-359 Mason, Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2012. Print. Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters. â€Å"The Crusades (1095–1291)†. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/crus/hd_crus.htm (October 2001)

William Goldings Lord of the Flies Essays - 1958 Words

In William Goldings Lord of the Flies, the color pink is hard to overlook. Throughout the text there is pink mentioned at virtually every turn: The pink platform, cream-pink conch, pink mountain, pink faces of the children, pink pig, etc. This color represents a vast amount including, This color represents compassion, nurturing and love. It relates to unconditional love and understanding, and the giving and receiving of nurturing. (Judy Scott Kennis, The Color Pink) Pink further details, Brighter pinks are youthful, fun, and exciting...† (Kate Smith, All About the Color Pink) With so many meanings, however, the primary symbolism of this color lies with the utter youth of the children, the characters of Goldings novel; many of the†¦show more content†¦William Golding has the wisdom that all humans are capable of evil, having this notion cultivated through the trails of war. Golding began his military career in the Royal Navy, temporarily abandoning his teaching professi on, in 1940. Eventually rising to a ranking of lieutenant, Golding experienced much of World War II at sea. He participated in many campaigns such as the sinking of the Bismarck and aided in the sinking and downing of many submarines and planes. His experiences of warfare lead Golding to state, I began to see what people were capable of doing. Anyone who moved through those years without understanding that man produces evil as a bee produces honey, must have been blind or wrong in the head. (Sir William Gerald Golding. 2014.). Golding promptly returned to his teaching and writing in 1945, where he shortly began writing Lord of the Flies. Utilizing influence from both his experiences in the war and his experiences from teaching unruly children, Golding builds his story with the idea that all humans, regardless of age, are capable of inhumanity. The beginning of the story lands the group of children survivors on a deserted island in the middle of the ocean, where they treat their plans for survival just as they would imaginative adventures in their parent’s backyard. Ralph was the first to rise and venture out after the plane wreck, who was then quickly introduced to PiggyShow MoreRelatedWilliam Goldings Lord of the Flies Essay1255 Words   |  6 Pagesever since they were born, or would they disregard all of it and do as they please because there is no definite authority figure to tell them how to live. In William Goldings, The Lord of the Flies, he brilliantly tells a story of life and death and everything in between. His use of symbolism with the conch, beast, and lord of the flies is phenomenal. It is a story that makes you think. Every person, when faced with reality, may act civil now, but in a survival situation, human nature takes overRead MoreAllegories In William Goldings Lord Of The Flies885 Words   |à ‚  4 Pagesrevolutionized his field with his model of the human psyche. According to his model, the mind is divided into three aspects: the id, ego, and superego. William Golding’s allegorical novel, Lord of the Flies, employs these three aspects of the psyche through intricate characterization representing the concepts of id, ego, and superego. Lord of the Flies tells the story of a group of young British boys who are stranded on an island in the South Pacific. They become trapped when their plane is shot downRead MoreWilliam Goldings The Lord of the Flies1027 Words   |  5 PagesEnglish author William Gerald Golding wrote Lord of the flies as his first novel in 1954. 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We will look at some of the prominentRead MoreEssay William Goldings Lord of the Flies1768 Words   |  8 PagesWilliam Goldings Lord of the Flies The first chapter of the novel, The Lord of the Flies, by William Golding is effective in establishing the characters, concerns and language for the remainder of the book, as well as introducing the main themes of the novel; that the problems in society are related to the sinful nature of man and good verses evil. In Golding’s first chapter, the main characters are introduced, we see many ominous signs of what’s to come through the authors choice of languageRead MoreEssay William Goldings Lord of the Flies4998 Words   |  20 PagesWilliam Goldings Lord of the Flies   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the novel, Lord of the Flies, William Golding tells the story of a group of boys on an island left out to self survive. The time was World War II when the plane the boys were in was shot down leaving young survivals on a deserted island without any adults. The whole story is about what happens during their stay on the island representing metaphoric ideas of humanity in each incident as Golding describes. Golding has reportedly said that he wroteRead MoreWilliam Goldings Lord of the Flies Essay1510 Words   |  7 Pagessignificance and an In-depth look in the characters of this story In viewing the aspects of the island society, the author William Goldings Lord of the Flies as a symbolic microcosm of society. He chooses to set the children alone in an unsupervised world, leaving them to learn the ways of the world in a natural setting first hand. Many different perspectives can also be considered. Goldings island of marooned youngsters becomes a microcosm. The island represents the individual human and the various charactersRead MoreWilliam Goldings Lord of the Flies Essay1265 Words   |  6 PagesWilliam Goldings Lord of the Flies Everything is breaking up. I dont know why. - Ralph What is going wrong on the island and why? The group of evacuees, all boys roughly aged between five and twelve, is dividing into two sets of people, each following either the ideal of civilisation, or the ideal of savagery. At the beginning of the novel, every boy, conditioned by society, was following the ideal of civilisation, that being the only ideal they knew. HoweverRead MoreAnalysis of William Goldings Lord of the Flies Essay700 Words   |  3 PagesAnalysis of William Goldings Lord of the Flies Civilization is the progress toward a society of privacy. The savages whole existence is public, ruled by the laws of his tribe. Civilization is the process of setting man free from men. (Ayn Rand) This quote explains this story, Lord of the Flies, in many ways. This book is about a plane full of boys escaping from the war happening in there society but unfortunately got shot and crashed down on an island. This plane contains boys coming back